Hemoglobin A1c is a robust biomarker for long-term glycemic control, reflecting average blood glucose concentrations over the lifespan of erythrocytes (~2-3 months). It is widely used in epidemiological and clinical research for the assessment of diabetes risk and management. Elevated HbA1c levels are associated with increased risk of microvascular and macrovascular complications, making it a critical marker for researchers studying metabolic health, particularly in the context of obesity, insulin resistance, and diabetes. Using dried blood spots for HbA1c quantification provides a practical and scalable method for researchers investigating metabolic health outcomes across diverse populations. The frequent and convenient collection of DBS can facilitate monitoring of HbA1c trends in response to behavioral interventions, providing a clearer understanding of the impact of lifestyle changes on glycemic control over time.

IL-6 and TNF-α are critical pro-inflammatory cytokines involved in the regulation of immune responses and inflammation. IL-6 functions as both a pro- and anti-inflammatory mediator and is particularly relevant in studies of metabolic dysregulation, insulin resistance, and obesity. TNF-α is implicated in the pathogenesis of a wide range of inflammatory conditions, including insulin resistance, cardiovascular disease, and cancer, due to its potent role in inducing systemic inflammation.

 IL-10 is an anti-inflammatory cytokine that plays a key regulatory role in suppressing excessive immune responses and mitigating tissue damage.  It counteracts the effects of pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-6 and TNF-α, making it an important marker for immune regulation and homeostasis in chronic inflammatory conditions.

 IL-1 beta is a potent pro-inflammatory cytokine central to the innate immune response. Primarily produced by activated macrophages, it promotes inflammation, fever, and tissue destruction in response to infections and injuries. IL-1β is implicated in many inflammatory and autoimmune diseases and is a key marker for studying chronic inflammation’s role in metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. It also plays a crucial role in the inflammasome pathway, activating caspase-1 and contributing to various inflammatory disorders, including insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction, linking it to type 2 diabetes and obesity.